Is there light at the end of the tunnel?

Well.... the sad time has come for the blog to officially draw to a close. After continual updating of the blog, it will certainly feel like a part of me is missing. It is all bad news...

Or is it?

That is the question my blog initially started out asking, is the Anthropocene a purely negative geological epoch, or could biodiversity be more resilient than I originally thought. In essence, would the 'grass be greener on the other side' for global biodiversity. The answer, as I sit here (now no longer a beginner to the blogging phenomena), remains as complex as before this blog was started. The real answer is, we just don't know. We never before have been in a state where human induced global warming has been increasing so rapidly and where emission levels have surpassed planetary boundaries.  The Earth and its ecosystems, are in unknown territory, which is what makes it such a crucial area of study. Although, there is no definite conclusion, this project has helped me develop my own opinions surrounding global biodiversity, including my pessimistic viewpoint of the 6th mass extinction, along with the optimism that there may be a technological (3D printer) fix. Everyone wants to believe in a better, brighter world and through completion of this blog, I truly believe if we are going to save the range of biodiversity the Earth has to offer, in all biomes, that conservation efforts are needed now more than ever. 

At the beginning of this blog, I set out to achieve a few things including to let the posts take me where they may and not have a strict agenda. This I have done, allowing current literary debates to guide me along the journey, however I did want to cover a range of terrestrial, freshwater and marine biodiversity. I also wanted my opinions to develop from what I read and this has most definitely been the case. I never realised that freshwaters were so threatened by anthropogenic impacts and that sea ice provided the habitat for such a variety of marine and terrestrial species. The freedom this blog has allowed,  opened by eyes to the stark reality of just how many threats humans impose. 

After enjoying this project, I would like to carry on the blog for my own personal enjoyment as it provokes my continual engagement with new developments in the ecological world. Completing the blog has confirmed my interest in ecology and I am looking forward learning about even more ecological debates in my Freshwater Ecosystems module this term. 

So I ask one final time who won the battle of Anthropocene vs Biodiversity? Currently, the anthropocene has propelled into the lead, but this doesn't mean the score board cannot change over the next few years.

Thank you for taking time to read my blog, hope it has been as enjoyable and educational as it has for me.

Until next time..... just kidding. 

A save haven for biodiversity?

Around three years ago, a paper was published in the Journal of Biogeography exploring mountain ranges as a possible save haven for alpine plant species that were threatened by human induced climate change. It went on to discuss how the habitat diversity of mountains could provide 'refugia' habitats (habitats that can help species persistence during long term climate change), which made this a vital discovery for conservation efforts (Scherrer et al. 2010). Scouring the internet today for a blog topic I came across a recent paper which had almost the exact same focus as Scherrer et al. (2010) but this time looking at the possibility of refugia habitats globally.

In the new study, Schut et al. (2014) highlights that considerable changes in the distribution and ecology of  ecosystems are likely to be ongoing over the coming decades in response to anthropogenic climate change. The paper suggests it has found a way to project future habitat locations using LIDAR to measure changes in rainfall. With a  strong correlation found between vegetation type, soil depth and rainfall, Schut et al. 2014 states that predicting future changes in rainfall could pinpoint potential refugial sites for threatened biodiversity. Throughout most of my blog research, what I have yet to come across is a 'fix' to the problems the anthropocene is imposing on Earth's ecosystems. Are refugia habitats that fix? With habitat refugia in its fledging stages (NCCARF, n/d), I am interested to see how likely it is that these habitats, will one day, form part of a critical climate change adaptation strategy.

Score Board Update: Anthropocene 7- 5 Biodiversity

3D printing: A technological innovation or disaster!

Reading other ecology focused blogs has become a vital part of my introduction to the blogging world. Understanding others opinions and developing my own viewpoint is what makes many blogs so interesting to read in the first place. With that in mind, today's post is made up of debates surrounding highly controversial 3D printing and its applicability for future biodiversity. It almost sounds like the stuff of science fiction, especially in the case of a pizza being made by a food printer! However, where the 3D printer could become one of the most incredible technological innovations of all time dubbed the 'next industrial revolution' (Sutherland et al. 2013) is through its use in nature and biodiversity. 

Sinpetru (2013) explores the use of 3D printing in artificial coral reef design. Reef Arabia and Dshape have found a way to create life-like artificial coral reefs that could provide suitable homes for marine species. This is especially urgent in a world where through anthropogenic impacts the ocean is acidifying and corals are disappearing. 

Scientists plan to create these reefs using a non toxic sandstone material similar to the material of real life corals. The first corals to be printed were 1m high and possessed the detail of natural coral reefs. 

     First artificial corals to be designed on the computer and then 3D printed using a sandstone material

With the Great Barrier Reef losing half its coral and the demand placed on recreational and commercial fisheries it has increased the urgency for a way to conserve the reefs. This is just one possible opportunity to offset the anthropogenic threats posed to coral reefs. 

It is not just coral reefs that could benefit from 3D printing. Sutherland et al. (2013) explored the possibility that 3D printing could in fact be used instead of emission producing factories to print just what is needed, decreasing waste production and emissions which can both be harmful to the planet and biodiversity. Could 3D printers be sustainable? I think this is all a bit of a stab in the dark at the present moment. However, if you are interested in emerging technologies that are trying to help save the planet and provide a technological fix then this is an interesting idea to keep on your radar!

Till next time.

Score Board Update: Anthropocene 7- 4 Biodiversity 

Welcome 2014! Time to stretch those.... wings

First things first, HAPPY NEW YEAR! Hope everyone is not too hungover from the amount of alcohol inevitably consumed last night. I may be a little ambitious attempting a blog post on New Years Day however, I will try and make it as short and sweet as possible. I just wanted to share with everyone a story about butterflies. Thats right... those pretty things that you tried to catch when you were little because they seem so fascinating. I am not ashamed to say that, that feeling hasn't changed as I have grown up and I still find butterflies incredibly interesting to study. What first caught my eye was how they are migrating further North in the UK (Crozier, 2004). I did not even know butterflies migrated let alone that they are being impacted by the steady warming temperatures due to anthropogenic climate change.

The brown argus butterfly actually benefits from a change in climate!

Coming from the 'North', I can understand the draws of the picturesque countryside and it seems so do the butterflies. UK butterflies are heading northwards as climate change makes Northern England more habitable (for the butterflies...). This has both negative and positive consequences as 'three quarters of butterflies have showed 10 year decrease in their populations' (Townsend, 2014) , meanwhile a small amount of common species are actually thriving! So what are the reasons for butterfly migration North? The lovely warm weather... well I don't know about that- it seems colder than ever...but according to a study published in Nature (2012) the warmer climate since 1990 has caused the Brown argus butterflies to expand their range, using different varieties of plants to host their eggs. The Centre for Ecology and Hydrology identified that populations of the butterfly have spread 79km further North in 20 years. The same investigation highlights that summer temperatures from 1990 to 2009 were on average 0..78% warmer each consecutive year (BBC Nature, 2012). 

It remains upsetting that unfortunately species that are already endangered and in decline are unable to migrate, which means they may face extinction. This will be especially prevent in species that need specialised habitats such as the Duke of Burgundy and the Pearl- bordered fritillary 

Endangered : The Duke of Burgundy and the Pearl- bordered fritillary butterflies.

It is extremely important therefore in the light of climate change that these special species are not overlooked and I was extremely pleased to find organisations that are dedicated to the conservation of these vulnerable butterflies. One such organisation was the Forestry Commission by Natural Scotland. They present the Pearl- bordered fritillary as one of the key woodland species identified for action under the Scottish Forestry Strategy 2006. They have recorded the butterfly distribution by survey highlighting areas where the butterfly is particularly abundant.  They have discovered the main threats to these species and along with the distribution map are protecting and conserving small areas of particular importance. 

So to welcome in a new year I thought I'd leave you all with this incredibly cheesy but relatable song....

Happy New Year! 

Score board update: Anthropocene 7 - 3 Biodiversity

Head in the clouds: Vulnerability of cloud forests to climate change

When I first encountered an article on science daily written about 'cloud forests', I became instantly intrigued to find out what they were as images of fluffy cloud trees flashed through my mind.

Blue cloud topped trees- only believable in fantasy. 

However, after some investigating on the internet, I came across more and more articles describing cloud forest reserves and their vulnerability to climate change in the Age of the Anthropocene. Eureeeeka! A blog topic for this weeks post was discovered.

Tropical Montane cloud forests are among the most vulnerable terrestrial ecosystems in the face of climate change (Ponce- Reyes et al. 2012).  They have restricted climatic requirements and fragmented distributions. The forests support a range of endemic species and with such a unique biodiversity it is vital this ecosystem is protected.

A cloud forest is a tropical or sub-tropical evergreen forest characterised by a low level cloud cover. They also can be called mossy forests due their abundance of ground mosses and vegetation (UNEP, n/d). The forests gain their moisture from the low settling clouds surrounding them. The plants in the canopy have  adapted to be able to extract water directly from the clouds using 'horizontal precipitation'. 

Image of mountain cloud forests with the characteristic 

fluffy cloud top. 

These forests however are heavily dependent on local climates, due to the fact they only occur within narrow altitudinal limits and therefore are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Tropical montane cloud forests are distributed 23 degrees North to 25 degrees South. Important areas of cloud forest include Mexico, Central and South America, Indonesia, Philippines and the Caribbean. 

                                Locations of Tropical Montane Cloud forests (Aldrich et al. 1997)

'12% of Mexican cloud forest is protected, however it is still not known if reserves will ensure the persistence of this special ecosystem and the biodiversity it provides a habitat for' (Ponce- Reyes et al. 2012). In Mexico, cloud forests account for 1% of land cover, but support the highest concentration of plant and animal diversity of any other Mexican ecosystem. 30% of all flowering plants in these forests are endemic to just cloud forests and around 90% of Mexican cloud forests have already been cleared for agriculture, cropping, grazing and extraction of natural products. It is worrying that with climate change the conditions needed for these spectacular ecosystems to exist will become reduced, ultimately reducing the potential expansion rate of the cloud forests. What really stuck in my mind was the statistic that 'loss of cloud forest directly attritable to climate change would lead to the extinction of 37 vertebrates restricted to this region of forest'.  Clearly, immediate action is needed and it should be an urgent priority to extend the protected areas. 

Currently the world land trust (WLT) is working with the local conservation group 'ecologic Sierra Gorga' (GESG) to save as much of this threatened habitat as possible. 

To liven up the post and provide a real insight into the Mexican cloud forests and the anthropogenic threats posed to them, have a look at the following short video. It explains the reliance on these moist rich ecosystems for various types of agriculture and what this is causing to happen to the sensitive ecosystem. 

Score Board Update: Anthropocene 6 - 3 Biodiversity 

Have a Holly Jolly christmas...

First things first, Merry Christmas! Hope everyone had wonderful day. The blog post today is going to be christmassy themed to hopefully keep you all in the spirit of christmas, at least till the new year when coursework deadlines will be deeming. To begin to set the mood, before you read on and discover the wonders of christmas holly (Ilex aquifolium) give the song a listen and dance around. Christmas day itself may have passed but the christmas holidays are still upon us.

Now we have you all in the mood, let me introduce today's topic 'English Holly' or sometimes known as 'Christmas Holly'. I did not realise that this seemingly harmless festive tradition is also a problematic invasive species in some areas such as in America and Pacific Northwest. Ilex aquifolium is a broad leaf evergreen shrub that can grow from 5-18 metres high. With its pretty waxy leaves and red berries, it has become, in Britain, to epitomise the essence of christmas. 

Image. English Holly with its poisonous red berries on the female plant. 

The holly is shade tolerant and highly competitive with other native understory plants (Boersma et al. 2006). This particular holly has escaped into forested areas where it grows in shade or sun on well drained soils. Due to the way it can grow vegetatively or by seed, it is resilient to changes in climate. It is particularly detrimental to native plants as it is a water hog, preventing sufficient water for the surrounding vegetation. With climate change, English Holly is going to be affected much like any other species on the Earth. In the IPCC 4th report, it stated that ' English Holly would see a poleward shift of the northern margin due to increasing winter temperatures' `(WWF, n/d). The same shifting is also predicted to occur with European Mistletoe (Viscum album) which is gaining altitude in response to climate change. The study reveals that the plant has climbed 656 feet in the last hundred years (National Geographic, 2010). 

Till next time, eat, drink and be merry!

Eutrophication Looming...

Freshwater habitats are disproportionally diverse compared to other ecosystems, with them only covering 1% of the world surface yet providing habitat for over 25% of described vertebrates (Kipping, 2008). It has been estimated by the ICUN that there are around 27,400 freshwater species including fish, crabs, dragonflies and plants. With such a vast biodiversity, freshwater ecosystems provide many important goods and services not only to ecology but to humans also, including building materials and  flood and erosion control. Many of the world's poorest neighbourhoods rely solely on these ecosystems. 

Since the industrial revolution, many anthropogenic activities have caused alterations in the structure and functioning of freshwater environments (Millbrook, 2009). By increasing demands of aquatic environments, eutrophication has lead to undesirable changes in freshwater biodiversity (Smith et al. 1999). Changes in land use, including land clearing for agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and urbanisation has caused an increase in the available limiting nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorous in global biochemical cycles, that have been polluting lakes and streams worldwide (Vitousek et al. 1997). This surplus of nitrogen in terrestrial soils can move easily from land to surface water, migrating into groundwaters, increasing the toxicity (Nolan et al. 1997). With increasing human population densities, the increasing combustion of fossil fuels has been causing additional atmospheric nitrogen to enter water sources, increasing nutrient levels in many water bodies that are located near heavily populated areas. To understand how freshwater biodiversity is severely threatened by nutrient loading, it becomes vital to understand firstly, what is meant by this word 'eutrophication'. 

'Eutrophication is the process by which water bodies are made more eutrophic through an increase in their nutrient supply. This can choke rivers, lakes and other waterways by excess algae growth which has been simulated by fertilisers and poor disposal of human sewage' (Smith et al. 1999). 

Eutrophication influences the production of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and the growth of vascular plants in freshwater ecosystems which can effect light penetration into water bodies. The impacts are much more wide reaching than plant growth alone. Eutrophication also causes degradation of such water bodies resulting in a loss of species. (Postel and Carpenter, 1996). 

Blue-green algae (a easily observable green layer covering a fresh water source). 

In recent decades, eutrophication has been highlighted as one of the most serious environmental problems facing water managers. In Europe, this is especially seen as a highly destructive problem, hence why the European Water Framework Directive has allocated it as a important issue on their agenda (Sandergaard et al. 2007). Billions has already been invested to curb this issue by improved water treatment, however, despite this, eutrophication still remains a devastating problem in many areas. Saandergaard et al. (2007) portrays how internal mechanisms, both chemical and biological can prevent lake recovery. Such internal mechanisms include, internal loading from lake sediments (Marsden, 1989) and the 'development of zooplanktivorous and bethivorous fish in eutrophic lakes which reduces the top down control of zooplankton and phytoplankton' (Shapiro and Wright, 1984). 

Whether there is success or not from eutrophication conservation strategies, it has been certified that permanent effects of restoration can only be achieved if external nutrient loading is reduced sufficiently to low levels. Millbrook (2009) explains how

'historically environmental management strategies of freshwater systems have focused on reducing phosphorus pollution. While this has minimised freshwater algae blooms, it passed a great deal of nitrogen pollution to coastal systems'. 

With eutrophication a GLOBAL concern (affecting not only freshwater ecosystems, but coastal and marine systems),  it is becoming ever more important to acknowledge reliable management strategies. With the numbers of human population sporadically rising- euthrophication continually poses a greater threat to one of the world's most vulnerable ecosystem!

Score board update: Anthropocene 5 - 3 Biodiversity